Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean

South Asia, with its location in the center of the Indian Ocean, benefited enormously from the trade in the Indian Ocean Basin. (Connect: Write a paragraph comparing the Islamic global empire with the Mongolian Empire. See Topic 2.2.) Although some of the causes of expanded trade in the Indian Ocean Basin were the same as those of expanded overland routes, some related specifically to ocean travel and knowledge.

Spread of Islam Although the Indian Ocean trade had existed as early as 200 B.C.E., the expansion of Islam connected more cities than ever before. Trading partners existed in East Africa, East and Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Muslim Persians and Arabs were the dominant seafarers and were instrumental in transporting goods to port cities across the Indian Ocean. Cities on the west coast of India, such as Calicut and Cambay, became thriving centers of trade due to interactions with merchants from East Africa and Southwest Asia.

Calicut, especially, became a bustling port city for merchants in search of spices from southern India. Foreign merchants from Arabia and China met in Calicut to exchange goods from the West and the East, respectively. Local rulers welcomed the presence of Muslim and Chinese merchants, as it brought the city wealth and prominence in the Indian Ocean Basin.

Increased Demand for Specialized Products As the Indian Ocean trade grew, so did the demand for specialized products. Every region involved in trade had something special to offer its trading partners.

• India became known for the high quality of its fabrics, particularly cotton. In addition, merchants traveled to India in search of meticulously woven carpets as well as high-carbon steel (used for knives and swords), tanned leather, and artisan-crafted stonework. Merchants also sought pepper from India’s southern coastal cities.

• Modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia became known as the Spice Islands because of the fragrant nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, and cardamom they exported.

• Enslaved people, ivory, and gold came from the Swahili coastal cities of Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Sofala.

• China exported silks, and Chinese porcelain became coveted worldwide, which is why people in the West still refer to their fancier dishes as “fine china.”

• From Southwest Asia came horses, figs, and dates.

Trade in enslaved people also played a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean. While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas after 1500 came from west and central Africa, there had been a long- running slave trade in the eastern part of the continent. By routes over land or in the Indian Ocean, enslaved people from eastern Africa were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India. Many were transported to the islands off the southeast coast of Africa, such as Madagascar. The trade reached its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Enslaved people taken in the Indian Ocean trade suffered fates different from those who were taken across the Atlantic. Those in the Indian Ocean trade were more likely to provide forced labor in seaports in the shipping industry and as household servants. Some worked as sailors or even soldiers. Living in towns or cities, they had more opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers than did enslaved people taken to the Americas. Enslaved people who ended up in Islamic communities had certain rights, such as the right to marry. As a result of the Indian Ocean slave trade, African words, musical styles, and customs can be found in Oman, India, and elsewhere.

Environmental Knowledge Knowledge of monsoon winds was essential for trading in the Indian Ocean. In the winter months, winds originated from the northeast, while in the spring and summer, they blew from the southwest. Thus, merchants had to time their voyages carefully, often remaining in port cities for months at a time, depending on when favorable winds would come their way.

Advances in Maritime Technology Travelers needed ships capable of navigating the Indian Ocean’s winds. Arab sailors used sailing technology to aid their travel. It is debatable whether Arab sailors invented the triangular lateen sails that they used, but the sails were popular because sailors found that the triangular shape could easily catch winds coming from many different directions. Chinese sailors during the classical period had invented the stern rudder, which gave their ships more stability and made them easier to maneuver. The small wooden dhows used by Arab and Indian sailors dominated the seas during the Postclassical Era. Trade facilitated the rapid spread of sailing technology across the many lands bordering the Indian Ocean in this period. (See Topic 4.1 for later Chinese maritime technology, such as the magnetic compass and improved rudder.) The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, allowed sailors to determine how far north or south they were from the equator.

Growth of States The trading networks in the Indian Ocean fostered the growth of states to help institutionalize the revenue from trade. One Muslim city-state, Malacca, also spelled Melaka, became wealthy by building a navy and by imposing fees on ships that passed through the Strait of Malacca, a narrow inlet that many ship captains used to travel between ports in India and ports in China. The Sultan of Malacca became so powerful in the 1400s that he expanded the state into Sumatra and the southern Malay Peninsula. As in city-states in East Africa, Italy, and the Americas, Malacca’s prosperity was based on trade rather than agriculture or mining or manufacturing.

The sultanate ended when the Portuguese invaded the city in 1511. The Portuguese hoped that by conquering the key city on the Strait of Malacca, they could control the trade that flowed through it between Europe, India, and China. They were successful enough to generate great wealth for their empire. However, they were less successful than they had hoped. Their conquest touched off conflicts among the other states in the region and caused traders to diversify their routes and the ports they used.