Limits to Reform

Turkey, China, and Japan each followed its own path in responding to industrialization in the 19th century. Of the three, Turkey began to make changes earliest. However, Sultan Abdulhamid, though he supported reforms at first, became more conservative during his time as ruler. China began to make changes only later in the century. In contrast to Abdulhamid, China’s Cixi started as skeptical of reform but became more liberal during her reign. Japan responded to industrialization with dramatic, rapid changes beginning with the Meiji Restoration in 1868. However, the speed and depth of its reforms prompted a backlash from conservative members of society.