Southeast Asian Resistance

By the 1880s, the only independent country remaining in Southeast Asia was Siam (Thailand). The rest of the region was under the control of the Spanish, Dutch, British, and French.

Vietnam From the beginning of French colonialism in the region, many Vietnamese resisted. By 1884, when 12-year-old Ham Nghi became emperor, his top advisers were vocal critics of the French. The French soon tried to assert their control by raiding the royal palace, but the young emperor had been removed for safety. Ham Nghi’s supporters continued to resist French rule until he was captured in 1888 and exiled to Algeria. The resistance continued until 1895 under Phan Dinh Phung, who became a hero to future revolutionaries in the Vietnamese resistance movement.

Philippine Resistance The Philippines came under Spanish control in the 16th century, but there was no public education there until 1863. However, wealthy Filipinos sent their sons to Europe to study. One of those young men, José Rizal, started a reform movement called Liga Filipina (Philippine League) in 1892. Though the Liga was loyal to Spain, the Spanish feared it. They promptly arrested and executed Rizal, an action that shocked many Filipinos.

There had been numerous rebellions throughout the history of Spanish rule, but now, for the first time, Filipinos had nationalist ambitions and the education needed to carry them out. In 1896 several revolts broke out in provinces around Manila, marking the beginning of the Philippine Revolution. The Spanish- American War broke out in 1898, and after a decisive American victory in the Battle of Manila Bay, exiled Filipino revolutionaries returned. Based on U.S. sympathy for Philippine independence, the rebels expected freedom.

However, the Treaty of Paris ending the war merely transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States. By the time the treaty was ratified in February 1899, hostilities had broken out in what was to be known as the Philippine-American War. The war ended in a U.S. victory in 1902. An estimated 20,000 Filipino troops were killed, and more than 200,000 civilians died as a result of the war. Of the 4,300 Americans who lost their lives, nearly two-thirds of them died of disease. Organized resistance continued until 1906, but the Philippines remained a U.S. possession until 1946.