Imperialism in East Asia

China did not experience imperialism in the same way that South Asia or Africa did. It maintained its own government throughout a period of European economic domination. As a result of superior military strength, European nations carved out spheres of influence within China over which they had exclusive trading rights and access to natural resources. (See Topic 6.5.) Internal problems within the Qing government, such as the Taiping Rebellion, made it easier for foreign countries to dominate the economic affairs of China. During the Taiping Rebellion, which began in 1850, failed civil servant applicant Hong Xiuquan and starving peasants, workers, and miners attempted to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. With the help of some warlords along with French and British intervention, the Qings prevailed in 1864.

In the midst of the war, adding to China’s internal problems, the Yellow River (Huang He) changed course, flooding farmland in some areas and leaving others open to drought. With agricultural lands devastated, famine followed during which many Chinese starved to death. Adding to the troubles, the bubonic plague broke out at this time. By the end of the fighting, the rebellion was probably responsible for the deaths of more than 20 million people, more than half of whom were civilians.

Between 1899 and 1901, an anti-imperialist group called the Boxers— named because many of their members practiced martial arts, which were known as Chinese boxing—was attacking Chinese Christians and Western missionaries. The Empress Dowager Cixi (see Topic 5.8) encouraged the Boxers and in 1900 ordered that all foreigners be killed. However, most of the estimated 100,000 people who were killed were Chinese Christians. Only about 200–250 foreigners died during the Boxer Rebellion. The empress and the Qing court suffered a humiliating defeat that undermined their legitimacy. Western powers and influence continued to erode Chinese sovereignty in subsequent years.

Japan Industrialized countries outside of Europe also desired colonies. Japan had sharply limited its contact with other countries since the early 1600s. In 1853, United States Commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan in large warships to secure a treaty that opened Japanese ports to trade. In the following decade, Japan overthrew its traditional government in an uprising called the Meiji Restoration and began to rapidly industrialize, hoping it could become strong enough to protect its distinctive culture. As part of this change, Japan began to look outward for territorial gains. An island nation with few natural resources and little arable land, it sought lands and natural resources to fuel its own growth.

Partly to relieve population pressures in rural areas and partly to gain knowledge of foreign places, Japan’s government began to encourage agricultural workers to take seasonal contract work on Hawaii, Guam, and other locations. Through a Colonization Society established in 1893, leaders began plans to establish colonies in Mexico and Latin America. Japan set up an empire in East Asia that included parts of China, Korea, Southeast Asia, and Pacific islands that lasted from the 1890s until the end of World War II.